Optimizing the Supply Chain for Recycling Electric Vehicle NMC Batteries
Main Article Content
Keywords
recycling, optimization, network design, Mixed Integer Linear Programming
Abstract
The rapid growth of electric vehicle production has led to increased waste batteries that can no longer be used. This increase causes environmental and economic challenges. Lithium-ion battery waste harms the environment as it contains toxic and flammable chemicals. New raw materials need to be procured economically due to the need for more infrastructure and a circular economy. Therefore, the solution to overcome the impact of the accumulation of lithium battery waste is to recycle the battery. Recycling end-of-life batteries is necessary to mitigate material supply risks, reduce demand for new materials, and mitigate harmful environmental and health impacts. This study aims to provide a conceptual model for the supply chain network design of electric vehicles' Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC) battery recycling process. We developed a mathematical model to determine the allocation of multi-product recycling products from multi-suppliers and other related entities such as manufacturers and landfills over multiple periods. The analysis method utilizes techno-economic investment feasibility analysis and load distance method. The problem in the recycling process supply chain network is formulated in a Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) model. The MILP optimization results show that the proposed model produces a globally optimal solution for allocating NMC batteries. The application of this study is to provide a solution to the treatment of waste batteries from electric vehicle end-users in Java Island, Indonesia. In addition, it can develop economic opportunities in the waste battery recycling business in the electric vehicle industry. It is building a contribution to a sustainable electric vehicle battery management system by reducing the dependence on demand for new materials from mining and analyzing the sustainability of the NMC electric vehicle battery recycling process.
References
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[14] W. A. Jauhari, I. N. Pujawan, and M. Suef, “A closed-loop supply chain inventory model with stochastic demand, hybrid production, carbon emissions, and take-back incentives,” J Clean Prod, vol. 320, p. 128835, Oct. 2021, doi: 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2021.128835.
[15] M. Wasesa et al., “Economic and environmental assessments of an integrated lithium-ion battery waste recycling supply chain: A hybrid simulation approach,” J Clean Prod, vol. 379, Dec. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134625.
[16] S. Istiqomah, W. Sutopo, M. Hisjam, and H. Wicaksono, “Optimizing Electric Motorcycle-Charging Station Locations for Easy Accessibility and Public Benefit: A Case Study in Surakarta,” World Electric Vehicle Journal, vol. 13, no. 12, Dec. 2022, doi: 10.3390/wevj13120232.
[17] X. Yu and A. Manthiram, “Sustainable Battery Materials for Next-Generation Electrical Energy Storage,” Advanced Energy and Sustainability Research, vol. 2, no. 5, May 2021, doi: 10.1002/aesr.202000102.
[18] Y. Gao, J. Zhang, Y. Chen, L. Wang, and C. Wang, “Graphite regenerating from retired (LFP) lithium-ion battery: Phase transformation mechanism of impurities in low-temperature sulfation roasting process,” Renew Energy, vol. 204, pp. 290–299, Mar. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2023.01.024.
[19] A. I. Sholichah, M. Hisjam, and W. Sutopo, “The Selection of Lithium Battery raw Materials by Environmental, Economic, and Social Sustainable,” in IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, IOP Publishing Ltd, Nov. 2020. doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/943/1/012047.
[20] S. Windisch-Kern et al., “Recycling chains for lithium-ion batteries: A critical examination of current challenges, opportunities and process dependencies,” Feb. 01, 2022, Elsevier Ltd. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2021.11.038.
[21] K. Davis and G. P. Demopoulos, “Hydrometallurgical recycling technologies for NMC Li-ion battery cathodes: current industrial practice and new R&D trends,” Oct. 16, 2023, Royal Society of Chemistry. doi: 10.1039/d3su00142c.
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[26] M. K. Msakni and M. Haouari, “Short-term planning of liquefied natural gas deliveries,” Transp Res Part C Emerg Technol, vol. 90, pp. 393–410, May 2018, doi: 10.1016/J.TRC.2018.03.013.
[27] Y. Ren et al., “An efficient metaheuristics for a sequence-dependent disassembly planning,” J Clean Prod, vol. 245, p. 118644, Feb. 2020, doi: 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2019.118644.
[28] A. Budak and A. Ustundag, “Reverse logistics optimisation for waste collection and disposal in health institutions: the case of Turkey,” International Journal of Logistics Research and Applications, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 322–341, Jul. 2017, doi: 10.1080/13675567.2016.1234595.
[29] E. Demirel, N. Demirel, and H. Gökçen, “A mixed integer linear programming model to optimize reverse logistics activities of end-of-life vehicles in Turkey,” J Clean Prod, vol. 112, pp. 2101–2113, Jan. 2016, doi: 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2014.10.079.
[30] A. Aydemir-Karadag, “A profit-oriented mathematical model for hazardous waste locating- routing problem,” J Clean Prod, vol. 202, pp. 213–225, Nov. 2018, doi: 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2018.08.106.
[31] M. Tadaros, A. Migdalas, B. Samuelsson, and A. Segerstedt, “Location of facilities and network design for reverse logistics of lithium-ion batteries in Sweden,” Operational Research, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 895–915, Apr. 2022, doi: 10.1007/s12351-020-00586-2.
[32] X. D. Medrano-Gómez, D. Ferreira, E. A. V. Toso, and O. J. Ibarra-Rojas, “Using the maximal covering location problem to design a sustainable recycling network,” J Clean Prod, vol. 275, Dec. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124020.
[33] A. Yükseltürk, A. Wewer, P. Bilge, and F. Dietrich, “Recollection center location for end-of-life electric vehicle batteries using fleet size forecast: Scenario analysis for Germany,” in Procedia CIRP, Elsevier B.V., 2020, pp. 260–265. doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2021.01.084.
[34] A. Chouksey, M. Agrawal, and R. Jha, “Planning of three-level facilities network for collection and recycling of E-waste: A MILP-based modelling approach,” Mater Today Proc, Aug. 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2023.08.026.
[35] L. Krajewski, M. Malhotra, and L. Ritzman, Operations Management PROCESSES AND SUPPLY CHAINS, Eleventh. England: Pearson Education © 2016, 2016.
[36] P. Narang, P. K. De, M. Kumari, and N. H. Shah, “A bottom-up method to analyze the environmental and economic impacts of recycling lithium-ion batteries with different cathode chemistries,” Environ Dev Sustain, 2023, doi: 10.1007/s10668-023-04169-x.
[37] E. Kartini, M. Fakhrudin, W. Astuti, S. Sumardi, and M. Z. Mubarok, “The study of (Ni,Mn,Co)SO4 as raw material for NMC precursor in lithium ion battery,” 2022, p. 070001. doi: 10.1063/5.0122596.
[38] D. Berjoza and I. Jurgena, “Influence of batteries weight on electric automobile performance,” in Engineering for Rural Development, Latvia University of Agriculture, 2017, pp. 1388–1394. doi: 10.22616/ERDev2017.16.N316.
[39] I. Tal, B. Ciubotaru, and G. M. Muntean, “Vehicular-Communications-Based Speed Advisory System for Electric Bicycles,” IEEE Trans Veh Technol, vol. 65, no. 6, pp. 4129–4143, Jun. 2016, doi: 10.1109/TVT.2015.2442338.
[40] I. Veza et al., “Electric Vehicles in Malaysia and Indonesia: Opportunities and Challenges,” Energies (Basel), vol. 15, no. 7, p. 2564, Apr. 2022, doi: 10.3390/en15072564.
[41] A. Q. Mairizal, A. Y. Sembada, K. M. Tse, and M. A. Rhamdhani, “Electronic waste generation, economic values, distribution map, and possible recycling system in Indonesia,” J Clean Prod, vol. 293, p. 126096, Apr. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126096.
[42] I. Asaad, “Road Map Pengembangan Infrastruktur Kendaraan Listrik 2020 – 2024,” Indonesia, 2020.
[43] J. Dunn, A. Kendall, and M. Slattery, “Electric vehicle lithium-ion battery recycled content standards for the US – targets, costs, and environmental impacts,” Resour Conserv Recycl, vol. 185, p. 106488, Oct. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2022.106488.
[44] I. Samarukha, “Recycling strategies for End-of-Life Li-ion Batteries from Heavy Electric Vehicles,” KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden, 2020.
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Jan 31, 2025
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[1]
F. I. Kasy, M. Hisjam, W. A. Jauhari, and S. A. H. Syed Hassan, “Optimizing the Supply Chain for Recycling Electric Vehicle NMC Batteries”, J. Optimasi Sist. Ind., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 207–226, Jan. 2025.
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